Intelligent Wikipedia

Education in the largest sense is any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character or physical ability of an individual. In its technical sense, education is the process by which society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills and values from one generation to another.

Etymologically the word education contains educare (Latin) "bring up", which is related to educere "bring out", "bring forth what is within", "bring out potential" and ducere, "to lead".

Teachers in educational institutions direct the education of students and might draw on many subjects, including reading, writing, mathematics, science and history. This process is sometimes called schooling when referring to the education of teaching only a certain subject, usually as professors at institutions of higher learning. There is also education in fields for those who want specific vocational skills, such as those required to be a pilot. In addition there is an array of education possible at the informal level, such as in museums and libraries, with the Internet and in life experience. Many non-traditional education options are now available and continue to evolve.

A right to education has been created and recognized by some jurisdictions: since 1952, Article 2 of the first Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights obliges all signatory parties to guarantee the right to education. At world level, the United Nations' International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 guarantees this right under its Article 13.

Systems of formal education

Education is a concept, referring to the process in which students can learn something:

Instruction refers to the facilitating of learning toward identified objectives, delivered either by an instructor or other forms.
Teaching refers to the actions of a real live instructor designed to impart learning to the student.
Learning refers to learning with a view toward preparing learners with specific knowledge, skills, or abilities that can be applied immediately upon completion.

Computing Machinery and Intelligence

Computing Machinery and Intelligence, written by Alan Turing and published in 1950 in Mind, is a seminal paper on the topic of artificial intelligence in which the concept of what is now known as the Turing test was introduced to a wide audience.

Turing's paper considers the question "Can machines think?" Since the words "think" and "machine" can't be defined in clear way that satisfies everyone, Turing suggests we "replace the question by another, which is closely related to it and is expressed in relatively unambiguous words." To do this, he must first find a simple and unambiguous idea to replace the word "think", second he must explain exactly which "machines" he is considering, and finally, armed with these tools, he formulates a new question, related to the first, that he believes he can answer in the affirmative.

Rather than trying to determine if a machine is thinking, Turing suggests we should ask if the machine can win a game, called the "Imitation Game". It involves three participants in isolated rooms: a computer (which is being tested), a human, and a (human) judge. The human judge can converse with both the human and the computer by typing into a terminal. Both the computer and human try to convince the judge that they are the human. If the judge cannot consistently tell which is which, then the computer wins the game.

Turing writes 'What will happen when a machine takes the part of A in this game?' Will the interrogator decide wrongly as often when the game is played like this as he does when the game is played between a man and a woman? These questions replace our original, 'Can machines think?'"

As Stevan Harnad notes, the question has become "Can machines do what we (as thinking entities) can do?" In other words, Turing is no longer asking if a machine can think, he asking if a machine can act like it is thinking. This question avoids the difficult philosophical problem of defining the verb "to think."

Another take on what Turing replaced the question with was: can a computer, communicating over a teleprinter, fool a person into believing it is human?

source : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computing_Machinery_and_Intelligence

Philosophy of artificial intelligence

The philosophy of artificial intelligence attempts to answer such questions as:

Can a machine act intelligently? Can it solve any problem that a person would solve by thinking?

Can a machine have a mind, mental states and consciousness in the same sense humans do? Can it feel?

Are human intelligence and machine intelligence the same? Is the human brain essentially a computer?

These three questions reflect the divergent interests of AI researchers, philosophers and cognitive scientists respectively. The answers to these questions depend on how one defines "intelligence" or "consciousness" and exactly which "machines" are under discussion.

Important propositions in the philosophy of AI include:

Turing's "polite convention": If a machine acts as intelligently as a human being, then it is as intelligent as a human being.

The Dartmouth proposal: "Every aspect of learning or any other feature of intelligence can be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it."

Newell and Simon's physical symbol system hypothesis: "A physical symbol system has the necessary and sufficient means of general intelligent action."

Searle's strong AI hypothesis: "The appropriately programmed computer with the right inputs and outputs would thereby have a mind in exactly the same sense human beings have minds."

Hobbes' mechanism: "Reason is nothing but reckoning."

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence

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